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原文摘要

Rich perceptual structure emerges in modern vision encoders. Several studies have shown that the internal representation in many vision transformers separates foreground objects from the background, however, little is known about the visual cues that have been learned by these models. In this work, we study whether figure-ground organization in a broad range of 25 vision transformers relies on generalizable shape cues, rather than on superficial texture statistics. To do so we train linear probes to classify patches as figure or ground, and evaluate them zero-shot on synthetic stimuli where individual cues are systematically manipulated. For a broad range of vision encoders, we find that probes are robust to the random replacement of textures in the input image, suggesting that the emerging figure-ground organization relies on shape cues. Probes also generalize in a zero-shot fashion to synthetic images where individual shape cues, recognizability and spatial priors are controlled for. Our experiments reveal a strong influence of surroundedness and convexity cues, while results for parallelism and symmetry are more nuanced. More detailed analyses reveal stronger evidence for shape-based cues in larger models, that models trained for object-recognition tend to be less robust to texture changes and that figure-ground information emerges most prominently in middle layers. Taken together, our study demonstrates that emerging figure-ground organization in recent vision encoders relies strongly on generalizable shape cues, advancing our understanding of the internal processing in vision transformers, and opening an exciting avenue for computational research on human visual perception. Code and data is available at https://github.com/mtangemann/mlvbench.